Reading | InclusiveLiteracy

reading wheel

The Reading Comprehension Generating Wheel

Figure 1. The Literacy Loop

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What is “literacy”? Literacy is traditionally defined as the ability to read and write. Central to this ability are comprehension or making meaning through text reading, and composition, or sharing meaning through text writing. As a reader, simply identifying words and using phonics may not result in true comprehension where the reader understands and makes connections to the text. Successful reading results from coordinating multiple sources of knowledge and applying them to text that is appropriate and personally meaningful. Similarly, writing is not just a matter of spelling correctly or proper grammar. Composition requires the writer to use many skills together to convey a message. The components that comprise text comprehension and composition work as unified forces, like the flow of water that turns a water wheel. (See Figure 1 above, The Reading Wheel.) Reading comprehension and writing composition rely on multiple interacting inputs; when executed successfully they work in unison to generate meaning making— comprehension; or meaning sharing —composition.

The reading inputs include word identification; oral language proficiency; background knowledge & vocabulary; interest, motivation, and reading purpose; text factors; and comprehension strategies. Following is a description of each of the reading inputs that together effectively rotate the “wheel” of reading comprehension, and which in turn deserve focus within a standards-based, balanced literacy program. There should be synergy between the six inputs. A proficient reader utilizes all six inputs, and the inputs interact with one another. Each reading input is accompanied by evaluation criteria including progression levels. Several progression levels are linked to instructional strategies or activities to help the reader progress to the next level. (Some are not yet linked to activities, as you will locate or create activities as part of the course!)

Teachers should select books for class-wide read alouds and recommend books for student's own reading based on the below skills and strategies highlighted in the evaluation progression. When selecting books, use the following sources to research various options: Social Justice Books, NYC Public Library Recommendations, and We Need Diverse Books.

DEVELOPING

APPROACHING

PROFICIENT

ADVANCED.

EVALUATION PROGRESSIONS

Word identification: Decoding and recognition (CCSS Foundational Skills) Presented in the Reading Wheel as “word identification”, this input refers to reading printed words. Word identification can be automatic, when the reader immediately recognizes a word on sight (sight words); or mediated, when the reader uses one or more strategies – such as decoding (sounding out) or using context or pictures to figure out an unknown word. Words that are not in a young learner’s oral vocabulary might not be identified correctly. Note: CVC = consonant-vowel-consonant; CCVC = consonant-consonant-vowel-consonant words (initial blend or digraph); function words = words which are hard to define out of context, often irregularly spelled (for, the, though, what)

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Word Recognition

Recognizes few common function words. Struggles with unknown CVC words, and needs practice reading word families (onsets and rimes). Recognizes consonant sounds but has difficulty with medial vowels, including short vowels. Frequently incorrectly guesses words by over relying on context.

Recognizes many common function words. Decodes CVC words, but struggles with initial blends and digraphs (CCVC). May struggle with long vowels, and irregularly spelled words. Struggles with 2 syllable words.

More Support and just right books

Recognizes most function words. Recognizes or decodes many 1-2 syllable words including short and long vowels, initial and final and consonant blends and digraphs but struggles with affixes. Does not always use context to self-correct and may not notice when words are read incorrectly.

Automatically recognizes function words and many 1 and 2 syllable words including irregularly spelled words. Is working on using syllable patterns and affixes and prefixes to decode unknown multisyllabic words. Uses context to self-correct word reading.

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Motivation

Interest, motivation and purpose (all of the standards: students read different books for different purposes): Learners’ reading and writing ability is affected by their interest, motivation and purpose for reading to read or write. Personally meaningful/interesting texts gain readers’/writers’ attention, increasing effectiveness of comprehension and composition. Motivation is enhanced when students are given opportunities to choose reading material (Allington & Gabriel, 2012) which is written at an appropriate level for their reading ability (Allington, 2002). Folded into reading motivation is reading stamina – which refers to a reader’s ability to focus and stay on task for extended periods while reading. Having a clear purpose – knowing what you’re looking for when reading or who your audience is when writing – positively impacts outcomes. Each of the ELA standards can provide readers with a purpose for reading, such as when they are reading to determine a central theme, or to compare and contrast ideas within or across texts. Sometimes, purpose for reading is imposed by the teacher who wants learners to practice a particular skill. At other times, readers have their own purpose, for example to seek information about a topic of interest, or to learn about the further adventures of a beloved character.

INDEPENDENT READING

Takes random books from school library and doesn’t find books interesting. Is reluctant to read even with reminders from the teacher and often plays or leaves reading spot. Goes through motions of reading without showing understanding of being purposeful.

Chooses books from assigned reading level

and books given by the teacher. Sometimes needs outside motivators to stay on task and needs reminders to continue to read. Is sometimes confused by how to use taught strategies to read for assigned purpose.

Shows interest when teacher conducts book introductions/book walks. Chooses books recommended by teacher or peers. Reads in school; continues to read for entire time assigned. Uses teacher’s assigned purposes for reading to meet instructional goals.

Eagerly chooses a variety of books by looking over pictures or reading blurbs; seeks books on specific topics or from known series. Immerses self in books for extended periods. Reads in and out of school. Sets own purpose for reading such as to learn specific information on topic of interest or to follow characters in a series.

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Oral Language Developemet

Oral language proficiency (CCSS Speaking and Listening): Most people comprehend spoken language, and are able to speak, before they are able to read and write. Concepts are learned and concepts are developed through oral language from when learners are infants. Although reading replaces listening as a major source of information for most literate people, “talking it out” continues to help learners expand on and solidify their understandings. Oral language is closely related to background knowledge and vocabulary, yet oral language goes beyond this to include ability to use discourse structures to build on others’ ideas, contribute ideas relevant to the discussion on hand, explain ideas in an organized manner, use information and other evidence to support thinking, and use different registers (formal vs. informal language) as appropriate. Oral language development impacts reading comprehension as well as ability to compose text. A standards-based, balanced literacy classroom cannot be a silent classroom.

Rarely contributes to class discussions. Answers questions asked directly of them; may speak out of turn or not speak when asked to. Responses may not be relevant to discussion at hand, or does not include evidence or information to support ideas. Uses simple words.

Answers others’ questions. Frequently uses unrelated or unsupportive details or information. Relates ideas in a disorganized fashion. Frequently uses informal language and simple words to express ideas.

Appropriately answers others’ questions and asks questions of others when listening. Uses details and examples to express them self. May relate ideas in a disorganized fashion. Sometimes uses informal language and uses a mix of simple and more sophisticated words.

Listens attentively to others’ ideas, builds on ideas with relevant comments and questions, uses text evidence and information from other sources to support contributions to class discussions. Presents thinking in an organized manner, using a range of sophisticated words and a register appropriate to the situation.

fluency

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Fluency refers to a reader’s rate and expression of reading, usually oral reading. Reading fluency refers to the ability to read accurately, with good prosody (speech rhythms) and expression, and at a good pace. It is not an individual input; rather, it comes from a combination of word recognition, comprehension, and other inputs. Good comprehension allows a reader to use expression and prosody appropriate to the text selection, and word recognition helps readers automatically recognize words or quickly decode unknown words, affecting pace. Other inputs play a role as well. For instance, background knowledge and vocabulary can help a reader identify a word not automatically recognized, when they use context clues and phonics knowledge to figure out what the word is. Another input for fluency is text factors. When text is at an appropriate level with familiar text structure, the reader is more likely to recognize words and use appropriate expression, such as using different voices for dialogue. The relationship between fluency and other inputs is reciprocal: Efficient word identification supports oral reading, and practice with oral reading increases automatic word recognition. Comprehension is supported when readers can rapidly recognize words, and expression, and prosody are improved when text is comprehended.

Fluency: Rate

Reads word-by-word.

(1st: 0-10 WPM/ 3rd 40-50 WPM)

Reads slower than s/he speak.

(1st 10-25 WPM/ 3rd 50-70 WPM)

Reads at the same speed as s/he speaks. (1st 25-35 WPM/ 3rd 70-90 WPM)

Reads at the same speed as s/he speaks.

(1st more than 35 WPM/ 3rd more than 90 WPM)

Fluency: Expression

Reads in a monotone voice like a robot.

Reads with a combination of feeling and monotone.

Reads with feeling and inflection and reacts to some punctuation marks.

Reads with feeling and inflection, uses signal words to accurately depict dialogue and reacts appropriately to all punctuation marks.

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Background Knowledge & Vocabulary: Background knowledge and vocabulary are both influenced by, and influential in, the amount of reading a learner does and comprehends. A student with good background knowledge of a topic or topics, and with a wide vocabulary, will get more out of reading than one who doesn’t, and therefore read more. They are better able to activate background knowledge relevant to a reading selection, to make connections between the text and their prior knowledge, and to use known vocabulary to make sense of text. The more one reads, the more one learns from text, and the larger one’s vocabulary becomes. “Vocabulary” is captured by the Language strand of the CCSS. This strand includes understanding and acquiring a range of academic, domain-specific, nuanced, and multiple-meaning words. Multiple approaches for gaining vocabulary knowledge are included within these standards, with the goal of learners becoming independent word learners over time. “Background knowledge” plays a role here as well, since “knowledge” and familiarity with concepts and words representing those concepts are inextricably linked. When we assess vocabulary, it is important to consider breadth (number of words known) and depth (how well they are known). Keep in mind three tiers of vocabulary. Tier 1 – colloquial/everyday language; Tier 2 - academic language; Tier 3 – domain-specific vocabulary. As literacy teachers, our focus is on Tier 2 words.

Vocabulary

Background Knowledge

With probing and support, considers some prior knowledge which might be relevant to the reading selection. Attempts to make connections between a personal experience and the text

With probing, shares prior knowledge relevant to the reading selection. When asked, can make a connection between a personal experience and the text.

When asked, describes multiple ideas relevant to the reading selection. Independently explains connections between personal experiences and the text and with probing connects the text to another text.

Independently – using pictures, title, or a book walk - describes multiple examples of prior knowledge related to the text. Justifies multiple connections between the text and personal experiences, and connects the text to other texts read.

Vocabulary: Breadth and Depth

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Demonstration of understanding and use of academic (tier 2) and domain specific words (tier 3) shows that word knowledge is at a lower level than expected for the grade level. Demonstrates understandign of common (Tier 1) words and often cannot produce synonyms or antonyms for these words. Has difficulty identifying nuances between common closely related words.

Demonstrates understanding of some appropriate grade level academic (tier 2) words and often needs a more common synonym (tier 1) to understand words in context. Can produce common synonyms or closely related words, and antonyms or close antonyms using common words.

Demonstrates understanding of several grade appropriate general academic (tier 2) and some domain specific words (tier 3) encountered during text reading. Can describe the meaning of some figurative language; struggles with describing nuances between words and using precise words. Can frequequently produce synonyms and antonyms for common words (tier 1). Can identify nuances between common (tier 1).

Demonstrates understanding and deep knowledge of a range of grade appropriate words including general academic (tier 2) and domain specific words (tier 3) encountered during text reading. Demonstrates understanding of a range of types of words including figurative language, and those that signal precision; and shows depth of understanding by presenting synonyms, antonyms, and describing nuances between closely related tier 2 words.

Vocabulary: Independent learning

With direct support from teacher and reminders on how to use language supports (ie anchor charts, sentence frames) can identify word meanings in appropriate leveled text with supportive context. Is uncertain of the role of affixes.

With direct support from teacher, and use of language supports can use appropriate leveled text to identify word meaning in context. With direct support can use glossaries in books read with teacher. Knows some affixes but sometimes confuses their meanings.

With use of language supports can use appropriate leveled text to describe word meanings in context. With support can use dictionaries and glossaries. Knows several affixes and how they affect word meanings.

Flexibly uses a range of word learning strategies including use of context, use of grade appropriate affixes and roots, and consulting resources such as dictionaries, glossaries, and thesaurus.

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Comprehension Strategies

Levels of understanding

Comprehension –strategy use, literal understanding, inferential understanding

Reading comprehension refers to the process of extracting, as well as constructing, meaning for a text. Comprehension is the reason we read, and all other inputs lead to reading comprehension. Comprehension is facilitated by the use of, and coordination between, comprehension strategies. Teacher must keep track of which comprehension strategies students are adept at using, and which they need to work on, as well as their ability to integrate the use of multiple strategies at once. Also important is to note students’ level of understanding. Literal comprehension refers to the abitity to identify what a text says explicitly. Inferential is when students can construct meaning from text. They interpret and analyze readings in relation to what they already know about information and ideas presented, or about aspects that authors do not explicitly state, such as purpose for writing, lesson or theme contained in a text, or character traits which frequently need to be deduced from characters’ actions.

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Use of Comprehension Strategies

Uses one or two strategies with support. Recognizes some comprehension strategies with support.

Uses several strategies with support. Identifies each strategy and describes importance of some when prompted.

Uses a variety of comprehension strategies independently, or as directed by the teacher. articulates importance of each strategy when asked.

Flexibly and effectively uses multiple comprehension strategies appropriate to a reading selection. Justifies comprehension strategies used and evaluates importance of each strategy.

Answers questions about what text says explicitly. Next Step BME chart

Using details: Asks and answers questions about story elements, retells stories and identifies the central message, identifies main ideas and concepts. Next Step Main Idea

Using relevant details: retells text; asks and answers questions about story elements and characters’ actions; describes central moral or lesson in stories or main ideas and major concepts in information text using signal words. Next Step Claims and Evidence and/or Predictions

Using specific details and examples from text: Summarizes text; describes in detail all story elements; explains what text says explicitly and draws inferences; explains and provides rationale for themes, in stories or main ideas and concepts in information text.

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text factors

Text Factors (including text structure)

Within the Reading: Literature and Reading: Information Text strands is the standard Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity. This standard reinforces the notion that learners must read widely from a range of texts including stories, dramas, poems and myths as well as texts from science, social studies, and other disciplines. Different texts have different structures (think fairy tale vs. poem vs. encyclopedia). Fiction follows a very different structure than nonfiction, and these differences make different demands of readers. Familiarity with different structures enhances one’s ability to comprehend or compose them as do structure-specific strategies. Similarly, texts are written at different levels with differing numbers of words per page, a range of word difficulty, and varying levels of complexity. Matching readers to text in terms of level, interest, and familiarity supports comprehension. Also important is matching text to instructional purpose, i.e. using text with strong characters when exploring characterization. This input is one for the teacher to consider as much as for assessing the students. Teachers must recognize students’ need for appropriately leveled text as well as the different demands on readers that different text types make.

Text Factors

Text Factors (including text structure)

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Reads text 2 or more grades below grade level. Identifies that stories have a beginning, middle, and end. Identifies that stories have characters.

Reads text 1 or fewer grades below text level. Identifies narrative text structures including identifying texts that are poems and stories. Identifies story elements (plot, setting, characters, BME). Identifies when a text is narrative or information.

Reads grade level text. Describes the differences between narrative and information text. Describes story elements, and how successive parts of stories build on one another. Identifies stories, fairy tales, and myths. Identifies information text structures.

Reads texts above grade level. Explains the differences between stories, dramas, and poems, and refers to structural elements of each. Describes and compares differences between 1st and 3rd person narration. Describes the overall structures of information texts. Describes the differences between firsthand and second hand accounts.